Introduction to Sociology: Understanding Human Society and Behavior

Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social behavior. It examines the patterns, structures, and dynamics that shape interactions among individuals, groups, and institutions. Sociologists seek to understand how social forces influence human behavior, beliefs, and values, and how these factors, in turn, shape the development of societies. This article provides an introduction to sociology, exploring its key concepts, methods, and real-life examples that illustrate the relevance and impact of sociological research.

Key Concepts in Sociology

• Social Structure: Social structure refers to the patterns of relationships, roles, and institutions that organize and govern human interactions within a society. It includes elements like social norms, roles, statuses, and institutions like family, education, and government.
• Culture: Culture encompasses the shared beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors that define a particular society or group. It shapes how individuals perceive the world, interact with others, and express their identities.
• Socialization: Socialization is the process through which individuals internalize the norms, values, and behaviors of their society. It occurs throughout life and is essential for the transmission of culture from one generation to the next.
• Social Interaction: Social interaction refers to the ways in which individuals and groups communicate, cooperate, and negotiate within their social environments. It includes verbal and nonverbal communication, as well as face-to-face and virtual interactions.

Research Methods in Sociology

• Surveys: Surveys involve collecting data from a representative sample of individuals through questionnaires or interviews. They allow sociologists to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors on a large scale.
• Participant Observation: In participant observation, sociologists immerse themselves in a particular social setting to understand the experiences and behaviors of the people within that context.
• Interviews: Interviews involve direct conversations between sociologists and individuals or groups, providing in-depth insights into personal experiences and perspectives.
• Content Analysis: Content analysis involves examining and interpreting the content of texts, such as books, media, or public speeches, to identify patterns and themes related to sociological phenomena.

Examples of Sociology in Action

• Social Movements: Sociologists study social movements, such as civil rights movements or environmental activism, to understand the collective efforts of individuals seeking social change.
• Education: Sociologists analyze education systems to examine issues like access to education, educational outcomes, and the impact of social factors on academic achievement.
• Family Dynamics: Sociology sheds light on family structures, roles, and changes over time, helping us understand evolving family dynamics and their impact on society.
• Criminal Justice: Sociologists explore the criminal justice system, studying issues like racial disparities in law enforcement and the impact of social factors on crime rates.

In Conclusion, Sociology is a dynamic and essential field of study that provides valuable insights into human society and behavior. It helps us understand the complexities of social life, cultural diversity, and the impact of social forces on individual experiences. By examining patterns, structures, and dynamics, sociologists contribute to informed policy-making and advocate for social justice and equality.
Through research and analysis, sociology provides a comprehensive understanding of the intricate web of human interactions, empowering us to create more inclusive, empathetic, and harmonious societies. By acknowledging and applying sociological concepts and methods, we can address social challenges, promote cultural understanding, and build a world that fosters respect, cooperation, and mutual understanding among diverse communities.

By Khushdil Khan Kasi

The post Introduction to Sociology appeared first on Sociology Learners.

In today’s world we spend our daily life at work, hanging out with friends, watching television and surfing on internet. Our life is too narrow and isolated to understand the complexity of social world. Thousands of communities exist and Countless interactions transpire within a social world about which we not know about. Our experiences are too limited to grasp a broader picture of social world. But then again, how can we comprehend the complexity of social world? We can analyze social world via the framework called sociological imagination. C. wright Mills presented and pioneered the theoretical framework “sociological imagination” in his most influential work “The sociological imagination” (1959). Sociological imagination refers to the ability to realize that apparent interpersonal problems are depiction of larger social structure.

According to C.W. Mills society can be examined via, two major factors these include, “troubles” and “issues”. In this context troubles mean, the challenges individuals face on personal level. Whereas, issues refer to, the challenges on larger social level. He argued that, neither life of an individual nor the history of society could be comprehended absent the knowledge of both (Troubles and issues).

Interpersonal problems are caused by our character or because of our relationships with others. We function as actors in our personal life because we make different choices or decisions regarding our friends, family, education, groups and other things which are in our control. The negative outcome of the choices or decisions we make are called troubles. For instance, if a college student who does not attend classes, plays video game with his friends 5 days in a week and never submit his assignment has a personal problems; which diminishes his chance of success in college. Whereas, if 60 % students fail in college exams and do not graduate from college is a social problem (issue).

Generally, we do not consider the effects of social structure on our social life. Social problems are the outcome of social laws; which regulate human social behavior. We usually blame ourselves for the problems we encounter within a society. Even though, they are not personal problem but social issues; which are the product of social environment. We have control over our personal problems whereas, we cannot control social issues. For instance, in a country where 50% people are unemployed as well as, living under poverty line; suggests that, being poor and unemployed are not personal problems of individuals however, social problems. Issues such as these reflects the social structure of a given country.

Moreover, if a student fails in college exams, it does not necessarily mean that he is stupid. However, He might be experiencing conflicting roles and role expectations. He could be the only bread winner in his family. Therefore, he has to work 24 hours a week to support his family. For that reason, he may not have enough time to study for exams. As a student at college it is expected from him to study hard and get good grades. On the other hand, as an elder son and elder brother within a family; it is expected from him to work hard and financially support his parents and siblings. Conflicting roles and roles expectation are two among many factors which influence the social behavior of individual.

Theories such as social imagination and social facts are central to sociology. Because, these theories delivered a new perspective to comprehend society and human social behavior. Owing to, sociological imagination we can understand that, individual personalities are not the only factor which influence their social behavior. However, social structure affects social behavior of individual as well. Moreover, social problems such as, divorce, unemployment, poverty, crimes and drug abuse cannot be resolved by merely focusing on individual personalities. We have to identify and change dysfunctional component of social structure as well, in order to eliminate social problems. Social imagination offers a new outlook to identify and resolve the common problem individual encounter within a given society.

Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi

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Auguste Comte;

Auguste Comte was born in Montpelier, France on January 19, 1798. He is the founding father of sociology. Post French revolution, he observed rapid social change within French society. Citizens of France had progressed in material culture but lagged behind in non-material culture. During this social unrest Auguste Comte came forward and laid the foundation of “social physics” later “sociology”.

Comte was inspired by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant “positivism”. He referred to Kant philosophy of positivism as underdeveloped philosophy of science. While developing Kant philosophy, he coined the term social physics. Comte believed that, there should be a discipline which should study society scientifically; to identify social problems and their solutions. He thought that methods of natural sciences should be applied; to identify social laws which govern societies. His entire work was intended to introduce the scientific method to study social patterns. He discussed positivism in his series of books these include, “The Course in Positive Philosophy” (1830 -1942) and “A General View of Positivism” (1848).

Ibne- e -Khaldoon;

Some authors believe that “Ibne-e-Khaldoon” a Tunisian historian was the founding father of sociology. He is considered as the founding father of sociology because, he pioneered the concept of “Illm-ul-imran” in his book “Muqa’dima”. Illm-ul-imran means, study of people. According to Ibne-e-Khaldoon, neither historians can understand nor write the history of society without the knowledge of illm-ul-imram.

Moreover, he presented his theory of “Alasbia” in his book “Muqa’dima”… Alasabia refers to social solidarity. He believed that, common interest bring people together and create sense of unity among them. Furthermore, he discussed “harzri” and “badvi” society. Former means urban society and later means rural society. According to Khaldoon, people of rural societies are more united compare to urban societies. For the reason that, they share common interests and similar professions. As well as, they can protect themselves and their territory against foreign aggression. Because people of rural society are physically stronger and united compare to the people of urban society. Most of Khaldoon social theories are similar to Emile Durkheim theories.
He also discussed “inductive logic method” for obtaining knowledge. In inductive logic method knowledge is obtained via logic and event association. He believed that, historical, social, political and economic events are correlated. All events have cause and effect relationship.

Many ancient philosopher were fascinated with the study of society. Though, Auguste Comte has been bestowed with the titles “founding father of sociology” and “grandfather of sociology”.

Development of Sociology as a Formal Academic Discipline;

As a discipline, sociology have had grown with the passage of time. New terminologies, theories and research methods have been introduced in the field. The credit for the development of the discipline goes to many social philosophers. Though, we will discuss few prominent philosophers whom work have essentially aided the creation and development of sociology as a formal academic discipline. As well as, they are considered as fathers of sociology.

Kal Marx;

Karl Marx was born on May 5, 1818 in trier, Prussia. He was among one of the most influential economist and philosopher. His work is still regarded and studied in many disciplines of social sciences. He and his friend Friedrich Engels coauthored a political manuscript in 1848 called “communist manifesto”. Communist manifesto brought revolutionary change in the politics of many societies. He also presented his theory of society in his manuscript. Which is completely different from Auguste Comte proposed philosophy (positivism).

According to Karl Marx, societies change and grow due to class conflict. Capitalist system create inequalities among individuals within societies. Therefore, Different social classes struggle over scares resources or means of production.
Capitalism refers to the economic system in which people can own private properties and means of production. Marx believed that, in such economic system rich will exploit poor because they own means of production and property, due to which will rich will become richer and poor — poorer. Ultimately, disparities will increase within capitalist societies. For the reason that, Poor will be compelled to revolt against rich. Working class will overthrow capitalism and capitalism will be replaced by communism. Communism refers to economic system in which properties and means of production is owned by state and wealth is distributed equally among the people. In other words, communist society is classless society in which everyone is considered equal.

Herbert Spencer;

Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher, he was born in 1820. In 1873 he published his book “the study of sociology”. The word sociology was used for the first time in the title of a book. Herbert Spencer rejected the philosophies of Karl Marx (class struggle) and Auguste Comte (positivism). He believed that, there should be a form of government which should not interfere in commercial activities and let the market forces to control capitalism. His theories also influenced one of the most distinguished sociologist Emile Durkheim.

Emile Durkheim;

Emile Durkheim was born in France on, April 15, 1858. In 1895, he established sociology department at university of Bordeaux; it was the first department of sociology in Europe. In 1902, He became the first sociology professor at Sorbonne Paris.

Emile Durkheim defined sociology as the study of “social facts”. Social facts refers to, societal norms and values which guide the conduct of individuals within a society. Individuals learn social norms from their surroundings or within a group in which they socialize. With the passage of time they endure and internalize societal norms and values. Social facts have coercive power which guide individuals’ behavior in different situation within a society. He believed that, sociologist should study and observe the impact of group on individuals rather than, impact of individuals on society. It will help researchers to identify whether, society is health or, pathological. Healthy society refers to, a stable society; where people behave in accordance with social norms. On the other hand, pathological society refers to, order less society; where people do not conform to social norms and values.

In 1893, Emile Durkheim published his first book “Division of labor in society”. In this book he explained the transformation of rural society in to industrial society with the help of his theories; “organic and mechanical solidarity”. He believed that, social change is progressive, primitive society’s progress industrially with the passage of time. Industrial progress take place due to division of labor. Every individual have different job and responsibilities within industrial society, which weakens the collective consciousness.

His second major work “The rule of sociological method” was published in 1895. In which he attempted to explicate sociology as an independent discipline as well as, elucidated scope and method of sociology. Moreover, he explained deviance and its impact on society. According to Emile Durkheim, deviance play an important role within society. It bring people together within a society and arouse collective sentiments against deviant behavior, for the reason that, Negative sanctions are imposed on perpetrator to reinforce societal norms. He believed that, deviance cannot be eliminated from societies entirely even if severe punishment is inflicted upon criminals.

Emile Durkheim book “Suicide” was published in 1897. It is one of his most influential and greatest contribution to the discipline of sociology. It was the first social research based on statistical evidence. The purpose of his research was to determine; the effects social factors on suicide instead of individuals feelings effects on suicide. He examine the rate of suicide in different countries to find out whether, social structure coerce individuals to commit suicide or, not. Moreover, he identified four type of suicide in his book these include, anomic suicide, fatalistic suicide, egoistic suicide and altruistic suicide. In his research two social factors were determined and proven to be the cause of suicide including, social integration and regulation.

The last major work of Durkheim “the elementary form of religious life” was published in 1912. In his book he discussed the primitive religions, their functions and religious symbols. His objective was to identify how individuals internalize social facts and how society exercise to control individuals’ through their subjective conscience. He believed that, religion create social solidarity among individuals within a society. Participating in religious ritual bring individuals together and provide them opportunity to interact frequently with one another. When individuals participate in collective life it reinforce collective conscience. According to Durkheim, modern societies lack social solidarity because of decline and abandonment of traditional religions. In urban societies Individuals do not share common belief and do not get a chance to participate in collective life. Therefore, in such societies collective conscience could not be reinforced and in absence of collective consciousness individuals cannot be united.

Max Weber;

Max Weber was born on April 21, 1861 in Erfurt, Germany. In 1919, he established sociology department at Ludwig Maximillian’s university of Munich, Germany. Weber book “The protestant ethics and spirit of capitalism” was published in 1904. The objective of his book was to investigate the roots of modern capitalism. He argued that, one must understand the characteristics and differences among Christian theologies in order to comprehend modern capitalism. As he associated the conception of capitalism with Calvinist theology. He asserted that, force behind the development of capitalism is unplanned influence of Calvinist theology. According to protestant theology, hard work and economic success are the signs of salvation. Which influenced the people within secular societies to develop their own enterprise and engage in trade in order to accumulate wealth.

Weber views were in conflict with Karl Marx social theories. He argues that, Marx have only considered economic factor to explain social change and social life. Besides, social life cannot be explained and justified through a single factor. Therefore, human behavior could not be defined as merely a reflection of material interests. Instead of focusing on the effects of economic factors on human behavior and social life, Weber devoted his attention to study the effects of social action on economy.

Weber book “The nature of social action” was published, in 1922. In which he defined sociology as the scientific study of social action. He believed that, every social action have subjective meanings. Subjective meanings refer to, how individuals interpret their actions. In other words, subjective meanings are motives and objectives behind people conduct. In order to identify actual rationale behind actor conduct Weber, pioneered a concept “Versthen”; which is a German word for understanding. In this method researcher develop several hypothesis concerning rationale of people conduct and then test them empirically.

Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi

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The study of sociology is not limited or confined to the particular aspect of human social life and society. However, sociologists analyze each and every aspect of human social behavior and society. Sociology is the study of entire society, in which sociologists’ examine social institutions, social interactions, groups, types of societies, culture, social values, social norms, sanctions, crimes, criminal behavior etc… The discipline of sociology almost covers every single characteristic of human social behavior and society, therefore, it is difficult to discuss all the sub-fields of sociology. However, some general and renowned branches of the discipline are explained below.

Sociological Theory

In this branch sociologists study or analyze past sociological theories through scientific methods. Previous social theories are verified and tested  via scientific research methods.

Criminology

Criminology is among one of the pivotal branches of sociology, it is the study of deviant or criminal behavior of individuals and groups within a society. Criminologists analyze laws, sanctions and causes of crimes or criminal behavior. Moreover, it also studies social institutions which are responsible for formulating and imposing formal laws as well as, the effects of punishments (negative sanctions) on human behavior and society.

Sociology Of Knowledge

Sociology of knowledge is among newly emerged branches of sociology, it studies the relationship between society and human thoughts. Sociology of knowledge insinuate that, knowledge of individuals’ is influenced and mended by social environment. In other words, structure of society determines the development and nature of individual thoughts and ideas.

Political Sociology

Political sociologists analyze the effects of political phenomenon on human social life as well as, the impact of social forces on formal political process. Political sociology is concerned with the sociological study of political structure.

Sociology of Religion

Sociology of religion examines the beliefs of individuals as well as the structure of religion within a society through research. Sociologists use or had used qualitative and quantitative research to analyze the structure of religions and belief systems within different social settings. Distinguished social thinkers have had presented their theoretical perspective on religion these include, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and max Weber. Some social theorists have defined the functions of religion within a social system while, others presented religion as source of exploitation within a society. However, all outlooks provide useful information regarding universal basic institution of religion. Therefore, theories of all these eminent social thinkers are studied in this sub-field of sociology.

Rural Sociology

Rural sociology is among one of the popular and important branches of sociology, it deals with the study social life, structure and culture of rural society. The primary focus of urban sociologists is the analysis of rural economic structure (agriculture/food production and distribution) however, areas such as conflict, traditions, social solidarity, community development, rural migration, demographics etc. are also studied in rural sociology.

Urban Sociology

Urban sociology is among one of the important sub-fields of sociology, it studies the structure of urban societies as well as, social interactions among individuals within urban societies. Urban sociologists are interested in analyzing the social life and structure of metropolitan cities. They identify the causes, social problem and social change that occurs during the process of urbanization. Analysis such as these aid in the planning and formulating policies for cities (urban societies). The foundation of urban sociology rest upon the theoretical work of eminent social thinkers such as, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Tonnies, George Simmel and Emile Durkheim. These theories provides insight regarding the effects of political, economic and cultural process of urbanization on human social life and society.

Sociology of Culture

Sociology of culture is concerned with the study of culture. Culture refers to the way of life shared by individuals within a group or defined geographical area. Cultural sociologist analyze culture via interpreting the subjective meaning behind individuals’ behavior. In order to understand subjective meanings behind social actions one must study elements of culture these include, language, social norms, values and beliefs. Therefore, cultural sociologist analyze the formation and evolution of cultural elements as well as, the influence of these cultural elements on individuals’ social lives and personalities.

Sociology of Demography

Demography is the study of size, structure and distribution of population of a given society. Population structure of a society could be analyzed through collecting the data on age, sex, birth rate, death rate, education, ethnicity, religion, income etc. Of people.

Sociology of Family

Sociology of family is concerned the study of family which is the oldest and universal institution in the history of societies. This branch of sociology examine the effects of social change on the structure of family as well as, the influence of family structure on people social lives.

Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi

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Independent Social Science

Sociology is not a branch of any discipline but an independent discipline itself. It is not a physical science but a social science. It is the study of social universe rather than physical universe. Moreover, sociology has its own research methodology and subject matter limitation.

Social Science

Sociology comes into the category of social sciences not physical sciences like, physics and astronomy.

Ethically Unbiased

The primary concern of sociology is to study; how and why individuals behave the way they do within a society? And what are the short and long term consequences of their social behavior? Sociologists examine patterns of human social behavior indiscriminately, they avoid value judgments. While sociologists conduct social research they do not judge other cultures by comparing it with their own culture, because it compromises the reliability and validity of the study.

Abstract Science

Sociology is not a concrete science of social events however, it examines the patterns of social interaction as well as, the factors which influence the development and maintenance of those patterns these include, culture, social institutions, social organization, associations, social roles and statuses.

Generalizing Science

Sociology does not focus on any particular area of society or a specific social events like other social sciences disciplines do. For instance. Political science focusses on the study of politics and political events. Furthermore, it is not either like history for example in history, war is explain particularly as an event such war of Plessy, Afghan war, world war 1 etc…. whereas, sociology is generalized science and study war generally as a social phenomenon. Sociologists study impacts of war on the social life of the people.

General Science

Sociology does not focus on a specific aspect of human behavior, it almost cover every aspect of human life. Which are, social interaction, institutions, groups, culture, demographics, social organization, evolution, associations and social roles.
Rational and empirical science;
Social knowledge can be obtained from two methods which are “empirical” and “rational study methods”. In “empirical method” the knowledge is obtained from the following process; hypothesis is developed with the help of observations, moreover, data is collected, concerning hypothesized social event or problem; there are many methods of data collection. However, there are two types of data; primary data and secondary data. After data collection, data is tested with the help of scientific statistical method and analysis, to prove the hypothesis right or wrong. Whereas in rational method, theories are supported with logical reasoning.

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Sociology has been defined from different perspectives by sociologists’. Ward and graham Sumner defined sociology as, “the science of society”. Whereas, F.H Giddings defined it as “the science of social phenomena”. According to Emile Durkheim, sociology is “the science of institutions”. Simmel; considered sociology as “the science of social relationships”. Weber described sociology as “the study of social action”. Park viewed sociology as “the science of collective behavior.

In the light above definitions, we can define sociology as, “the study of society”. Society is the product of social interaction, groups, associations, institutions, (political, economic, education, religion and family) etc. individuals within a society interact with one another to fulfill their needs which lead to the formations of groups, associations and institutions. Social institutions are established and increased, due to increase in the need of people within a society. Furthermore, social institutions play an important role is satisfying the needs of people. Institutions are interdependent, without one others cannot survive. If one institution is dysfunctional it creates problems in the entire social system. Moreover, People have different roles and statuses within social institutions. If they fulfill their responsibilities in accordance with their role and statuses, institutions will function smoothly and will be able to achieve its objective.

Each social institution has its own culture. Rules (Norms) of institutions are formulated on the bases of its culture. Norms are an important factor in the smooth functioning of an institution. It is a blue print for its member’s behavior. Without norm every institution would be disorganized and dysfunctional. There would be confusion among the members about their roles, statuses and objective.

Origin of Sociology

“August Comte”, a French thinker, laid the foundation of the discipline sociology. He observed the rapid social change in European society, post French and industrial revolution. However, there was no discipline at the time; to identify and resolve the social issues which exist within a society. Issues such as, inequality, social change in relationships, conflict, power and power struggle amongst social strata’s. August Comte observed that people in France progressed in material culture but lagged behind in non-material culture. Which had created chaos and unrest in a society. During this social and emotional unrest in the society, August Comte came forward, and laid the foundation of the discipline “social physics”, later sociology. He believed that, there should be a discipline which should study the social issues scientifically and find their solution. He also introduced the scientific method for the study of sociology known as “Positivism”.

However, some authors believe that “Ibne-e-Khaldoon” was the founder of sociology. He was a historian, belonged from Tunis. In his book “Muqa’dima” he discussed the concept of “Illm-ul-imran”, which is defined as the study of people. He believed that, “no one can write history absent the study of “illm-ul- Imran”. There were many ancient Greek philosopher, like Plato, Aristotle and Herodotus, who also discussed the subject of society and social issues, though, Augusta comet was the one who introduced scientific method of research in sociology, therefore, he had been bestowed with the title of “Father of sociology”. On the other hand, ibne- khaldoon method was distinct from Augusta Comte, for obtaining sociological knowledge, which was based on logic and event association. He believed that, historical social, political and economic events are associated with each other, all those events have cause and effect relationship with one another. Sociologists refer to this method as, “inductive logic method”.

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Before attempting to explain sociology let us discuss the misconceptions people often have regarding the subject. When people hear the word sociology they relate the subject to social welfare or helping poor and unfortunate. Some people relate sociology to socialism and some think that sociology is the study of people. However, the word sociology is the combination of Latin and Greek words. The word “socio” is derived from Latin word “socius” which has various meaning including, association, companionship and society. Whereas, the word “logy” is derived from Greek word “logos” which literally means “word or to speak about” but, the term is interpreted as study or science.

We can define Sociology as the scientific study of society and human behavior. It is among one of the pivotal branches of social sciences. Subject matter of sociology is based on empirical research. Society is the product of social interactions, culture, groups, associations, social institutions, etc… In other words, society can be defined as the group of people who share same culture and live in defined geographical territory. Moreover, Sociology covers every aspect of society. Whether, its interaction between two people or, relationship between two societies. People of different societies may behave differently in a similar situation and sociologists tend to determine the patterns which influence the behavior of individuals within a society.
Furthermore, Society can be studied on both micro and macro level. For instance, on micro level sociologists might study or analyze, the accepted way of communication in small groups it could be the group of students or the group of professional bankers. On macro level, sociologist might study or analyze how social media or electronic media influence the behavior of people within a society or in different societies.

SOCIETY, CULTURE AND SOCIAL IMAGINATION;

To comprehend the definition of sociology readers must understand the two concepts; society and culture. “Society” refers to a group of people who live in defined geographical area and share similar culture. Whereas, “culture” refers to the way of life shared by a group of people which include, daily routine and everyday interactions. Furthermore, sociologist study culture via the concept social imagination. The concept was pioneered by C.W Mills. According to Mills social imagination is the relationship between the individuals’ behavior and experiences. In other words, it determines the influence of culture and social structure on individuals’ behavior, choices and perception.

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