The term sociology was first coined by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1970 in an unpublished manuscript. Later, the term was reinvented by a French social thinker Auguste Comte in 1838.
Auguste Comte;
Auguste Comte was born in Montpelier, France on January 19, 1798. He is the founding father of sociology. Post French revolution, he observed rapid social change within French society. Citizens of France had progressed in material culture but lagged behind in non-material culture. During this social unrest Auguste Comte came forward and laid the foundation of “social physics” later “sociology”.
Comte was inspired by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant “positivism”. He referred to Kant philosophy of positivism as underdeveloped philosophy of science. While developing Kant philosophy, he coined the term social physics. Comte believed that, there should be a discipline which should study society scientifically; to identify social problems and their solutions. He thought that methods of natural sciences should be applied; to identify social laws which govern societies. His entire work was intended to introduce the scientific method to study social patterns. He discussed positivism in his series of books these include, “The Course in Positive Philosophy” (1830 -1942) and “A General View of Positivism” (1848).
Ibne- e -Khaldoon;
Some authors believe that “Ibne-e-Khaldoon” a Tunisian historian was the founding father of sociology. He is considered as the founding father of sociology because, he pioneered the concept of “Illm-ul-imran” in his book “Muqa’dima”. Illm-ul-imran means, study of people. According to Ibne-e-Khaldoon, neither historians can understand nor write the history of society without the knowledge of illm-ul-imram.
Moreover, he presented his theory of “Alasbia” in his book “Muqa’dima”… Alasabia refers to social solidarity. He believed that, common interest bring people together and create sense of unity among them. Furthermore, he discussed “harzri” and “badvi” society. Former means urban society and later means rural society. According to Khaldoon, people of rural societies are more united compare to urban societies. For the reason that, they share common interests and similar professions. As well as, they can protect themselves and their territory against foreign aggression. Because people of rural society are physically stronger and united compare to the people of urban society. Most of Khaldoon social theories are similar to Emile Durkheim theories.
He also discussed “inductive logic method” for obtaining knowledge. In inductive logic method knowledge is obtained via logic and event association. He believed that, historical, social, political and economic events are correlated. All events have cause and effect relationship.
Many ancient philosopher were fascinated with the study of society. Though, Auguste Comte has been bestowed with the titles “founding father of sociology” and “grandfather of sociology”.
Development of Sociology as a Formal Academic Discipline;
As a discipline, sociology have had grown with the passage of time. New terminologies, theories and research methods have been introduced in the field. The credit for the development of the discipline goes to many social philosophers. Though, we will discuss few prominent philosophers whom work have essentially aided the creation and development of sociology as a formal academic discipline. As well as, they are considered as fathers of sociology.
Kal Marx;
Karl Marx was born on May 5, 1818 in trier, Prussia. He was among one of the most influential economist and philosopher. His work is still regarded and studied in many disciplines of social sciences. He and his friend Friedrich Engels coauthored a political manuscript in 1848 called “communist manifesto”. Communist manifesto brought revolutionary change in the politics of many societies. He also presented his theory of society in his manuscript. Which is completely different from Auguste Comte proposed philosophy (positivism).
According to Karl Marx, societies change and grow due to class conflict. Capitalist system create inequalities among individuals within societies. Therefore, Different social classes struggle over scares resources or means of production.
Capitalism refers to the economic system in which people can own private properties and means of production. Marx believed that, in such economic system rich will exploit poor because they own means of production and property, due to which will rich will become richer and poor — poorer. Ultimately, disparities will increase within capitalist societies. For the reason that, Poor will be compelled to revolt against rich. Working class will overthrow capitalism and capitalism will be replaced by communism. Communism refers to economic system in which properties and means of production is owned by state and wealth is distributed equally among the people. In other words, communist society is classless society in which everyone is considered equal.
Herbert Spencer;
Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher, he was born in 1820. In 1873 he published his book “the study of sociology”. The word sociology was used for the first time in the title of a book. Herbert Spencer rejected the philosophies of Karl Marx (class struggle) and Auguste Comte (positivism). He believed that, there should be a form of government which should not interfere in commercial activities and let the market forces to control capitalism. His theories also influenced one of the most distinguished sociologist Emile Durkheim.
Emile Durkheim;
Emile Durkheim was born in France on, April 15, 1858. In 1895, he established sociology department at university of Bordeaux; it was the first department of sociology in Europe. In 1902, He became the first sociology professor at Sorbonne Paris.
Emile Durkheim defined sociology as the study of “social facts”. Social facts refers to, societal norms and values which guide the conduct of individuals within a society. Individuals learn social norms from their surroundings or within a group in which they socialize. With the passage of time they endure and internalize societal norms and values. Social facts have coercive power which guide individuals’ behavior in different situation within a society. He believed that, sociologist should study and observe the impact of group on individuals rather than, impact of individuals on society. It will help researchers to identify whether, society is health or, pathological. Healthy society refers to, a stable society; where people behave in accordance with social norms. On the other hand, pathological society refers to, order less society; where people do not conform to social norms and values.
In 1893, Emile Durkheim published his first book “Division of labor in society”. In this book he explained the transformation of rural society in to industrial society with the help of his theories; “organic and mechanical solidarity”. He believed that, social change is progressive, primitive society’s progress industrially with the passage of time. Industrial progress take place due to division of labor. Every individual have different job and responsibilities within industrial society, which weakens the collective consciousness.
His second major work “The rule of sociological method” was published in 1895. In which he attempted to explicate sociology as an independent discipline as well as, elucidated scope and method of sociology. Moreover, he explained deviance and its impact on society. According to Emile Durkheim, deviance play an important role within society. It bring people together within a society and arouse collective sentiments against deviant behavior, for the reason that, Negative sanctions are imposed on perpetrator to reinforce societal norms. He believed that, deviance cannot be eliminated from societies entirely even if severe punishment is inflicted upon criminals.
Emile Durkheim book “Suicide” was published in 1897. It is one of his most influential and greatest contribution to the discipline of sociology. It was the first social research based on statistical evidence. The purpose of his research was to determine; the effects social factors on suicide instead of individuals feelings effects on suicide. He examine the rate of suicide in different countries to find out whether, social structure coerce individuals to commit suicide or, not. Moreover, he identified four type of suicide in his book these include, anomic suicide, fatalistic suicide, egoistic suicide and altruistic suicide. In his research two social factors were determined and proven to be the cause of suicide including, social integration and regulation.
The last major work of Durkheim “the elementary form of religious life” was published in 1912. In his book he discussed the primitive religions, their functions and religious symbols. His objective was to identify how individuals internalize social facts and how society exercise to control individuals’ through their subjective conscience. He believed that, religion create social solidarity among individuals within a society. Participating in religious ritual bring individuals together and provide them opportunity to interact frequently with one another. When individuals participate in collective life it reinforce collective conscience. According to Durkheim, modern societies lack social solidarity because of decline and abandonment of traditional religions. In urban societies Individuals do not share common belief and do not get a chance to participate in collective life. Therefore, in such societies collective conscience could not be reinforced and in absence of collective consciousness individuals cannot be united.
Max Weber;
Max Weber was born on April 21, 1861 in Erfurt, Germany. In 1919, he established sociology department at Ludwig Maximillian’s university of Munich, Germany. Weber book “The protestant ethics and spirit of capitalism” was published in 1904. The objective of his book was to investigate the roots of modern capitalism. He argued that, one must understand the characteristics and differences among Christian theologies in order to comprehend modern capitalism. As he associated the conception of capitalism with Calvinist theology. He asserted that, force behind the development of capitalism is unplanned influence of Calvinist theology. According to protestant theology, hard work and economic success are the signs of salvation. Which influenced the people within secular societies to develop their own enterprise and engage in trade in order to accumulate wealth.
Weber views were in conflict with Karl Marx social theories. He argues that, Marx have only considered economic factor to explain social change and social life. Besides, social life cannot be explained and justified through a single factor. Therefore, human behavior could not be defined as merely a reflection of material interests. Instead of focusing on the effects of economic factors on human behavior and social life, Weber devoted his attention to study the effects of social action on economy.
Weber book “The nature of social action” was published, in 1922. In which he defined sociology as the scientific study of social action. He believed that, every social action have subjective meanings. Subjective meanings refer to, how individuals interpret their actions. In other words, subjective meanings are motives and objectives behind people conduct. In order to identify actual rationale behind actor conduct Weber, pioneered a concept “Versthen”; which is a German word for understanding. In this method researcher develop several hypothesis concerning rationale of people conduct and then test them empirically.
Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi