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]]>American media is one of the biggest exports of the American culture. It is one of the widely consumed and distributed forms of culture in United States. It clearly means that Americans not only consume own media in large quantities, but other countries also consume American media. However, nationals of other countries do not understand or interpret the media same way as Americans do, however, different aspect and angles of the American reality and culture are viewed in other countries through media content. Media is one of the most significant tool for discussing class, gender or race in America. It takes viewer for discriminating and understanding the accuracy of proportion found of minority and ethnic groups. As stated by (Omi, 628-629) “Film and television have been notorious in disseminating images of racial minorities which establish for audiences what these groups look like, how they behave, and , in essence, “who they are”. The power of the media lies not only in their ability to reflect the dominant racial ideology, but in their capacity to shape that ideology in the first place”. (Cook, 2017).
Even during the Presidential election of Barack Obama, who was the first nonwhite President in history of United States, has contributed in distorted perception, which decreases racial barriers in American society. White people in America have the privilege in United States and different perception related to the effects of class, gender and race on their culture and to nonwhites. White Americans are seen in lower classes and upper-middle class but nonwhites exist more below poverty line as compare to white Americans (Yanow, 2015).
According to Goldberg, (2016), Columbus sailed Ocean Blue in 1492, and everyone is aware about his story, as it is taught in primary schools or before it. When he was landing in United States, he was unaware that he is exploring or developing the biggest Melting Pot of the world. This “Melting Pot” means that a new country, which is made from the mixture of different beliefs and cultures, hence, creating the new changing-culture and new country. The complication with the “Melting Pot” is that individuals are unable to put individuals of different ethnicity and race together without the conflict. The conflict is defined as “A state of disharmony between incompatible or antithetical persons, ideas, or interests; a clash.” (Murji, and Solomos, 2015)
It all started from the columnist, who work and farm by themselves on the land, which mostly were stolen. Gradually with the passing years, they started to realize that they should not work on their own, if they have other people for doing this for them. And then shipping of the slaves from Africa started. Thousands of slaves were gathered and brought in this foreign lands as slaves by the white people on the basis of race. And then these racial differences formed America. The foundation of United States was on conflict and tension. And so this strained was obvious and continued after the abolishment of the slavery. People lash out on other races for making themselves better. The use of phrases like “hating crimes” were also popping up. In the last century, American Africans were considered as the inferior groups because of their race. Areas were designated for the colored and white people. Colored nationals were forbidden to eat at certain places, and not even permitted to drink water from same fountain white drank. The discrimination was also done on the basis of ethnicity groups. They degrade minorities and do not protect their rights. Minorities were humiliated at many times (Yanow, 2015).
Cook, B., 2017. What impact has Ethnic Studies had on Black men (Doctoral dissertation, San Francisco State University).
Goldberg, D.T., 2016. Racial subjects: Writing on race in America. Routledge.
Murji, K. and Solomos, J. eds., 2015. Theories of Race and Ethnicity. Cambridge University Press.
Wade, P., 2017. Race and ethnicity in Latin America. Pluto press.
Yanow, D., 2015. Constructing” race” and” ethnicity” in America: Category-making in Public Policy and Administration. Routledge.
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]]>Marriage is a universal social institution which exist in every society. However, types of marriage varies from society to society. There are three well-known types of marriage these include, monogamy, polygamy and group marriage, which are further categorized into sub types.
Monogamy is a universal type of marriage which almost exist in every society. In such type of marriage, one man is married to one woman. Monogamy is further divided into two types including, straight monogamy and serial monogamy.
Straight monogamy is the type of monogamy, in which one man is married to one woman but in case of divorce or death of spouse, either of them cannot marry again.
Serial monogamy refers to a type of monogamy, whereby one man is married to one woman but in case of divorce or death of spouse, unlike straight monogamy either of them can get married again.
Polygamy is a type of marriage, in which one men is married to more than one women or, one women is married to more than one men at the same time. Furthermore, polygamy is classified into two categories including, polygyny and polyandry.
Polygyny is a type of polygamy, whereby one men is married to more than one women at the same time. There are two types of polygyny these include, sororal polygyny and non-sororal polygyny.
The word sororal is derived from Latin word “soror” which means sisters. When a man is married with two sisters at once is called sororal polygyny.
Non-sororal polygyny is a type of polygamy, whereby a man is married to more than one women at once but his wives are not blood related. Non-sororal Polygyny still exist in many countries, especially in Muslim countries. The laws in majority of Muslim states are based on religion or Laws of Allah. Taking more than one wife is considered normative behavior in Muslim countries. However, in many countries polygamy of any type is considered as unlawful and unethical practice.
Polyandry is a type of polygamy, whereby one woman is married to more than one man. This type of marriage is still practiced by some African and Indian tribes. Moreover, polyandry is further divided into two types including, fraternal and non-fraternal polyandry.
Fraternal polyandry is a type of marriage, in which two or more than two brothers take a single woman as their common wife. This type of marriage is still practiced by the tribe of India namely Todas tribe.
In non-fraternal polyandry multiple man take one women as their common wife however, in this type these man or husbands of a woman are not blood related. Moreover, It’s up to woman, which ever husband she chooses to live with.
Group marriage refers to a type of marriage, whereby a group of women are married to a group of men and all of them have common husbands and wives.
Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi
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]]>Learning process of human beings initiate since conception. Children are being conditioned with the norms and values of society. They learn gender roles via observing and interacting with their family members. Observation and social interaction are the tools of learning deviant behavior. Those individual who frequently interact with criminal minded people are most likely to learn criminal behavior.
An individual personality is formed through interaction, in a primary group. Parents, friends, girlfriend and siblings are the people who can influence the behavior of an individual because, interaction with them is inevitable. It is most likely for an individual to adopt the personality traits of primary group members. If someone among the members of primary group possess the criminal tendency and an individual frequently interact with him, the probability of adopting the criminal behavior is high.
Criminals are not born but made, no one is criminal by birth. They learn how to become a criminal, the crimes they commit is not rational for them in the beginning. However, they were taught to rationalize the unacceptable or deviant behavior, once which was alien to them.
In every country there is multiple cultures some cultural norms may differ from the state laws. Those cultures whose norms are hand in hand with state laws, members of such culture follows the state laws. However, cultures which norms differs from the state laws, members of such cultures might violate the state laws.
Those people who interact generally with criminals, compare to law abiding citizens are most likely to commit crimes or break the laws. The probability of deviant behavior can be identified through the number favorable and unfavorable associations.
Criminal behavior cannot be learned only from observation. There are many other ways to learn criminal behavior. For example, learning of criminal behavior might be the result of compulsion and seduction. Moreover, criminal behavior cannot be rationalized for gratifying basic needs because, majority satisfy their basic need trough normatively acceptable way in the similar scenario.
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]]>“Emile Durkheim” belonged to the structural-functional school of thought. He was interested in the study of social structure and its functions. How different part of society function and contribute to the functioning of society as whole. He believed that social solidarity is the main element which hold society together. Social solidarity is the feeling of unity among individuals with one another and with society or what makes society solid, viable and hold it together. He explained solidarity in two different type of societies. He says that, mechanical solidarity exist in a societies which has simple social structure like rural society. Whereas organic solidarity exist in the society which has complex social structure like urban society.
According to “Emile Durkheim”, traditional societies or rural societies has mechanical solidarity. Individuals bond together in traditional society by the homogeneity. The division of labor is very slight in this type of society. Individual almost have similar skill sets and have similar job responsibilities. In traditional society individuals earn their livelihood from agriculture and in agriculture societies there is very low division of labor almost every individual is peasant. Moreover, people of rural society share similar religion, culture, norms, believes and values. Due to the homogeneity they are connected with one another and society, which is characterized by, “Emile Durkheim” as mechanical solidarity. Mechanical solidarity is based on the sameness of people living in a society. Emile Durkheim built an analogy which compare a society with a machine or a series of machines which are manufactured similarly. Suppose if there is a problem in a part of machine because of which machine is not working. It can be replaced by the same part of other machine and it will start working again. By this analogy Durkheim was trying to prove that, traditional or rural societies are held together by homogeneity.
Emile Durkheim believed that, modern industrial societies has organic solidarity. Individuals in modern bond together by heterogeneity. In urban society division of labor is very high; every individual possess different skill set or specialization. Moreover, individuals dissimilar, religion, believes, values norm and culture. So the logic dictated question arises here that, what hold them together? The answer is interdependence. Individuals in urban society are dependent on each other because of high division of labor, they trade their skills with one another which connects them with each other. Suppose if someone need legal assistance he will hire a lawyer, if someone car is broke he will go to mechanic for repair and if someone need hair cut he will go to barber. Individuals in urban society rely on each other that is what unify them. Emile Durkheim compared modern societies with organism, which are composed of multiple organ and each organ has its specialized function, organism is healthy if each part or organ perform its function. Similarly, modern society are composed of multiple institutions and each has its own specialized function if each individual and institution perform its function then it will result in healthy society.
By Khushdil Khan Kasi
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