Many sociologist have presented theoretical outlooks to comprehend society. However, three social thinkers form the foundation of modern sociological perspectives on society these include, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, Herbert Mead and Max Weber. Their theories facilitated us to comprehend functions of society.
Structural functional perspective;
Emile Durkheim was a functional social analyst. He defined sociology as the study of social facts. He argues that, society is greater than the sum of its parts. He was of the view that society cannot be studied by simply analyzing an individual social behavior however, In order to understand society we have to examine collective behavior of individuals within a given society. Besides, collective behavior should be comprehended via, determining the development, maintenance and functions of social facts. “Social facts” refer to the social elements which regulate individual social behavior these include, moral values, social norms, customs and beliefs. Social norms and values are shared by individuals within a society.
Emile Durkheim believed that, individuals develop collective conscience via internalizing social facts. Individuals learn and internalize social facts through socialization process. Moreover, he refers to collective conscience as a glue which holds societies together. When Collective conscience is developed among individuals, they share similar sentiments and act in similar ways in different social situations. Collective sentiments bring people together as well as, arouse the feeling of unity among them. According to Durkheim, criminals are not punished in a given society because they have committed crimes however, they are punished because they have offended collective conscience. He writes that, if I do not act in accordance with social norms, values and customs, I will have to face social isolation, ridicule and punishment with in a society.
Furthermore, he wrote in his book “The division of labor”; collective conscience is stronger in traditional societies compare to modern society. As societies evolve from traditional to modern; people become more divided. Due to the division of labor social order transforms from mechanical to organic.
In preindustrial societies people have common line of work, norms, values and beliefs, which bring them together and arouse feeling of unity among them. Durkheim categorized such social integration as “mechanical solidarity”. Whereas, in industrial society people have different professions and they don’t have collective cultural norms and values. However, they are held together due to high division of labor and formal laws based on restitution. Everyone is expert in specific but distinct profession thus, they rely on one another to fulfill their different needs within a society. Durkheim labeled such social integration as “organic solidarity”.
During the transformation from mechanical to organic solidarity, societies become norm less due to which, chaos and confusion prevails within a societies. He called such outcome of social change or transition anomie. “Anomie” literally means without law. Collective conscience is weakened within a society therefore, people become alienated from one another. The process of transition is completed when norms are reestablished and shared by the people. Consequently, society achieve organic solidarity as well as, anomie diminishes from societies.
Conflict perspective;
Karl Marx was a conflict social analyst. He is one of the most eminent and influential social thinkers in recent history. His social theories have as well as had influenced the political and economic structure of many societies. His work has been criticized by many social thinkers. Yet, he is regarded as the father of sociology. Because His theories are still respected and studied in many formal disciplines including, political science, economics and sociology. He offered a new theoretical outlook to analyze society. He developed a theoretical framework of society. The framework was based on two elements these include, base and superstructure. It portrays the notion that economy is the base on which the structure of society rest upon. Superstructure refers to government, family, politics, religion and education.
Marx believed that, dominant class of society has always exploited the working class for their personal gain. History of societies affirms the domination of upper class over the working class. Marx explained history of class conflict via, analyzing the structure of preindustrial and industrial societies. The fundamental determinants of his analysis were, relationship between employer and employee, working conditions and modes of production.
In ancient societies the relationship between employer and employee was of master and slave. Lands and modes of production were owned by masters. Slaves were supposed to work in their master fields in order to produce surplus from their labor. Workers were not paid for their work in ancient societies because they were considered as a property rather than employees. In ancient societies masters were legally entitled to exploit their slaves for any purpose.
In feudal society’s kings, aristocrat, religious scholars, soldiers and liege lords owned the agriculture land. Kings grated the lands to people on the basis of their position. In feudal societies relationship between employer and employee was of a lord and peasant. In feudal societies peasants were exploited by the lords to obtain more power and wealth. Peasants were allowed to cultivate their land in return of place to live and little portion of produce. Peasants share of produce was not even enough for their basic survival. Surplus of agriculture produce was distributed among individuals on the basis of their position and ownership rather than their work and effort.
Karl Marx believed that, People within industrial societies are divided in to two social classes; based on acquisition of power and resources these include, bourgeoisie and proletariat. “Bourgeoisie” refers to the class of rich people who own means of production. Whereas, “Proletariat” refers to the class of poor people who work as labors in the factories which are owned by bourgeoisie. He argues that capitalist societies are in a state of conflict between bourgeoisie and proletariat. Bourgeoisie exploit the labor of proletariat in order to accumulate more wealth and power.
Social class conflict bring about social change as well. However, class conflict lead to rapid social change rather than gradual social change. Karl Marx argues that, when working class become aware of the exploitation they will overthrow capitalism and replace it with communism. Communism is a social system in which government owns the property and means of production. As well as, the profit which is generated from production of goods and services will be vested on the welfare of people. There will no disparities among the people in Communist society it will be a classless society.
Symbolic interactionist perspective;
Symbolic interactionist theory addresses that, individuals social behavior hold subjective meanings and people in a given society share these subjective meanings. Symbolic Interactionist comprehend society via, determining the process through which individuals develop and share subjective meanings.
Max weber was one of the greatest influential social thinker of is time. His social theories contributed a lot in the development of sociology as a formal discipline. Like Marx and Durkheim he was interested in analyzing the social changes transpired within western society due to the advent of industrialization. As well as, the effect of industrialization on people social behavior. However, his outlook of analysis was entirely different from Marx and Durkheim.
According to Weber, the foundation of social structure rest upon social class, status and power. He argues that, Society is divided between two social classes based on economic factors these include, owners and workers. Whereas, status is based on noneconomic components such as, education, religion and kinship. However, social class and status are the main components which identify an individual power or influence over ideas. Unlike Durkheim and Marx, Weber believed that the foundation of society is built upon ideas.
In his book “The protestant ethics and spirit of capitalism” Weber associated the conception of capitalism with Calvinism. He asserted that, unplanned influence of Calvinism was the force behind the formation and development of capitalism. However, Protestants belief system was based on the idea that, hard work and economic success are the signs of salvation. Protestants social ideas were inspired from their religious beliefs. Which led them to work hard and establish business ventures in order to achieve economic success. That explains, why Protestants owned most of the businesses and enterprises at the time. Calvinists social actions inspired many people of secular societies as well. Consequently, they established their own enterprises and engaged in trading; intended to obtain economic prosperity.
Weber explained social change through identifying types of legitimate authorities of pre modern and modern societies as well as, the influence of ideas on the development of legitimate authorities. Pre industrial societies were governed by traditional authority. Where Leaders obtained power through inheritance or higher power. For instance, people of pre industrial societies believed that God has granted the power to the king to lead and rule. As well as, only royal family members have rights to become head of state. Beside, when king reign is ended his son inherit the legitimate right to lead the people and rule over kingdom. However, charismatic authority rests on the idea that leaders possess extra ordinary intelligence whether religious, heroic or ethical. In simple words leaders inspire people from their personality. Whereas, modern societies are governed by legal rational authority, leaders are legally chosen on the basis of merit. Weber described the pure types of authorities however, most societies have mixture of authority.
Weber argues that, modern societies are based on rationalization. Rules and procedures of the business are based on the idea of merit and logic rather than tradition or customs. He believed that, rationalization is effective for industrial societies. However, it has negative effects on human social life. He assumed that, in modern society human is trapped in iron cage. In other words, people are trapped in bureaucratic system. Bureaucracy is a hierarchal system supported by norms, which regulate human social behavior. He argues that. Bureaucracy set limits on freedom and equality which reduce individual rational self-determination. As a result, individuals develop sense of disenchantment of the world.
Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi