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<p style="text-align: justify;">Concern regarding high growth rate of crimes among women have developed in recent years. However, studies suggest that women have long history of commenting different crimes. According to statistical evidence, from 1500 to 1800 female prosecution rate was very high but it declined from 1800 to 1945 &#8212; whereas, significant growth rate has been observed from 1945 on-wards. The gap between the crime rates among male and females were narrower in first and last mentioned periods.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In early modern Britain women were commonly prosecuted for the crimes such as, assault, property crimes, infanticide and slander. Defaming of character or slander was considered more serious crime at that time compare to present. For the reason that, in early modern society people would lose faith on the person who is being accused or proven guilty of slander. Slanderers were not only being punished through formal social institutions but also informally punished by members of society, people would stop interacting with convicts such as these due to which they may lose job, trade, business and customers. Reputation was most cherished vales for individuals living within a village and small towns. At that time it was difficult for a person to move from one place to another and start over. However with the advent of urbanization in nineteenth century migrating from community to another become convenient and common thing for people as a result slander became less important or serious crime by commoners &#8212; on the other hand, it was still serious crime for elites because personal reputation was cherished or greatly valued within elite social groups. Moreover, the most significant crimes perpetrated by women in Europe were slander, witch craft, gossip and rumor spreading.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The women prosecution rate for crime was high because of two major reasons. Firstly, women interaction and engagement with public, neighbor and street life was far more than men (Eales 1998). Long before the advent of capitalism women were involve in business activities such as, baking, agriculture, brewing etc… except few elite class women. Before the advent of capitalism women often worked near home, alongside their children. However, in early 20th century capitalism transformed the working environment, place of work was separated from home due to specialized division of labor. Public presence of women provided them opportunity to commit crime. Secondly, the prosecution rate among women were higher in early modern society because formal laws were enforced equally on men, women and children everyone had to face the consequences indiscriminately in accordance with formal laws.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Additionally, in 1830 law enforcement and criminal justice system was male centered. Police officers were mostly men and they focused on arresting male convicts further, convicts were sent to male dominant courts if proven guilty then they were sent to male prisons. Therefore, in early nineteenth century women were less likely arrested, prosecuted and convicted for crimes (Feely 1994). Mostly women were prosecuted in lower court whereby the crime committed by women were seen less serious these crimes include, petty theft, drunkenness, child neglect and soliciting. However, women prosecution rate was higher in lower courts compare to supreme courts within Europe. Many crimes perpetrated by women were dealt with outside the justice system these crimes include, sexual promiscuity, alcoholism, vagrancy and destitution, which infer that most of the crimes committed by women were not recorded.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Studies of male and female arrest shows that the rate of overall crimes in Toronto declined from 1950 to 1960. These arrests were for common offenses such as disturbance of public order and the convicts were mostly from lower class backgrounds. These studies emphasis on the importance gender and class relation with crime.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Moreover, twentieth century onward significant number of women were included in police departments or policing which unveiled crimes perpetrated by women, most of these crimes were property and public order related. In early 20th century the rate of prostitution was low in Europe however high in other parts of the world (Ringdal’s 2003).</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">From 1970 onward feminist criminologist conducted many studies regarding women crime because of their contribution today we know about the rising crime rate among women in late twentieth century. Freda Adler most influential study on US women “Sisters in Crime” invoked a controversial debate today. She argued that female criminals are the outcome of women social liberation from 1960 on-wards. Firstly modern women of late twentieth century had excessive roles in public which created more opportunities for them to commit crimes. Secondly, the number of women prosecution increased because in modern societies women were not treated differently than men in contrast to pre modern societies &#8212; modern criminal justice system individuals were arrested, prosecuted and convicted indiscriminately in accordance with formal social norms.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Written by; Khushdil Khan Kasi</p>
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